Informative Paper

[Here is the paper I wrote for English.  It basically describes Nuclear Fusion, history, & applications.  Enjoi!]

A Glimpse of Nuclear Fusion

            When a person takes a stroll on a distant beach, and perceives the ocean, their mind is filled with the usual thoughts- Beauty, serenity, peace, grandeur, and perhaps infinite potential.  Well some not so normal people may get those same feelings while on a similar walk, but for a slightly different reason.  The National Ignition Facility states  that 1 gallon of seawater holds the same energy potential as 300 gallons of gasoline.  With that in mind, how can one simply stand idly by as man continues to depend on fossil fuels?  Surely after 100+ years, we would find some concrete solution to our problems.  In the 60’s, people envisioned by the turn of the century flying vehicles would be the norm.  Have we gone wrong?  Perhaps we have, but the more important question is- What can we do?  I believe that a large portion of the future is destined to be driven by a force so powerful that our very existence is dependent on it.  I’m of course referring to nuclear fusion.  Our sun is fueled by fusion, and soon so shall we.

                        An average Joe knows next to nothing about nuclear fusion, let alone nuclear physics.  How can something as important as our future be but a fleeting concept in our minds?  Allow me to inform you on the workings of the atom, what fusion is, how it works, and the applications today and even tomorrow.  The oblivious citizen may assume that nuclear fusion is fusing nuclear… things.  Well in laymen’s terms, that is precisely correct.  Contrary to popular belief, fusion is not rocket science; At least it is not conceptually that difficult to comprehend.  Nuclear fusion was discovered around 80 years ago, by two physicists by the names of Atkinson and Houtermans.  They postulated that the fusion of light atoms such as hydrogen would unleash great amounts of energy.  These two men laid the ground work for all fusion research to follow.

            During World War 2, the US was secretly working to unlock the secrets of nuclear fission through the Manhattan Project.  The research was done in Los Alamos, New Mexico, while most detonations of atomic weapons were conducted at the Nevada Test Site, in Nevada.  Fortunately most of the radioactivity has subsided, but that could explain why everyone at that concert is rather questionable.  I’m not sure they can explain the event, but I can certainly explain what nuclear fusion is.

            Nuclear Fusion put quite simply is when two atoms are forced together by means of heat or gravity until they overcome their opposing forces.  The two atoms fuse together, becoming a single atom, while excess weight is converted into energy.  Scientists discovered that a temperature of 100,000,000 degrees Celsius was required for fusion to take place.  The most simple and abundant form of fusion is Hydrogen (H) into Helium (He).  Isotopes are variations of elements, where the amounts of neutrons differ.  A hydrogen atom consists of one proton, and one electron.  Isotopes of hydrogen include Deuterium, which is hydrogen with a neutron, and Tritium, which has two neutrons.  It is notable to mention isotopes because higher isotopes produce neutrons during a fusion reaction.  When Deuterium and Tritium fuse, the end result is helium, (2 protons, 2 neutrons) and a single neutron.  This reaction is the most common and effective method of inducing fusion.  Besides neutrons, energy is a byproduct.  Specifically, several different kinds of energy.

            The combination of energies released is importing due to the fact that they are what fuels a chain reaction, and what we harness to produce electricity.  Alpha particles are produced, which is essentially a helium atom traveling at substantial speeds.  This atom is stable and reacts with very little.  In fact, alpha particles cannot even pass through a piece of paper, let alone your skin.  Next up is Beta particles.  They are charged electrons or positrons that are jettisoned at very high speeds.  Beta particles can mutate human DNA, along with causing light burns.  A few millimeters of aluminum are sufficient to stop these pesky beta particles.  The other major particle of a fusion reaction is a rogue neutron.  Neutrons are the most destructive particles that fusion produces.  These neutrons induce radioactivity as they pass through atoms.  So basically if they pass through your body, you become radioactive, and emit gamma rays.  The last notable emission from fusion is gamma rays.  These waves of the highest energy and frequency on the electromagnetic radiation spectrum (light).  Gamma rays pass through most objects, and are only stopped by six inches of steel or concrete.  They are more destructive than beta radiation is, but not as bad as neutrons.  The sum of all these particles is what helps to contribute to starting a thermo-nuclear chain reaction when fusion occurs.  A temperature of 100,000,000 degrees Celsius is required to induce a fusion reaction with hydrogen.

            Nuclear fusion is different than nuclear fission in many ways.  Atomic bombs use energy released via a fission reaction of Uranium or other heavy, dense, unstable elements.  Where fusion joins two atoms together, fission breaks apart atoms.  The energy released from a fusion reaction is 1000 times as powerful as a fission reaction.  To give you some insight into the destructive forces that atoms harbor, observe the following:

1000 lbs / TNT:                       1 Kiloton      |  
1,000,000 lbs / TNT:               1 Megaton

Little Boy (Hiroshima):           13 Kilotons     |  
Tsar Bomb (Russia 1961):       50 Megatons              

Mt. St. Helens:                        24 Megatons |  
Krakatoa Eruption (1883):      150 Megatons            

The bomb dropped on Hiroshima, Japan, in 1945 was Little Boy.  It had a blast rating of 13 Kilotons, and up to a roughly estimated 200,000 deaths.  (Including long term deaths)  It is difficult to imagine such destruction at such high numbers.  Take notice to the most powerful nuclear bomb ever detonated, which utilized the awesome power of fusion.  The Tsar Bomba was detonated in Russia on October 30^th, 1961.  Its yield is equivalent to Hiroshima and Nagasaki’s bombs combined, times 1400.  The heat from the detonation could have induced 3^rd degree burns up to 62 miles away, and the resulting mushroom cloud was 7 times higher than Mt. Everest.  Most incredibly of all, this weapon was so powerful; it produced 1.4% of our suns output !  At this point you should be enlightened to the potential that fusion holds for destruction.  Surely there are more practical ways to harness the power of the sun.

            Currently there is a large movement to contain the energy fusion produces, in order to convert it into electricity.  All fusion reactors operate on the same basic principle:  Raise the temperature of hydrogen until fusion occurs, control it, and use the heat generated to turn a steam powered turbine.  One would think that in almost a century, man would discover a more efficient means of taming heat.  Unfortunately as it stands now, we are limited to the maximum efficiency of 50% that steam powered generators can provide .  The two main types of fusion reactors are Inertial and Magnetic Confinement.  Inertial confinement uses a small pellet of hydrogen, about the size of a needle head.  This fuel pellet is heated up by lasers from every angle until the outer shell explodes, compressing the core.  The remainder of the fuel fuses into helium, and electricity is produced.  The other main type of reactor is the magnetic confinement reactor.  Hydrogen plasma is confined in the reactor, while being charged with huge amounts of electricity.   Magnetic fields contain the plasma from escaping, due to plasmas’ inherit attribute to conduct electricity.  The hydrogen plasma is eventually heated up to the point of fusion.  These two reactors have made huge amounts of progress in recent years, but we’re still a few years away from producing more energy than the reactors consume. 

            Another field where fusion is shedding its light is in space.  Mans current means of interstellar travel are crude and ineffective at best, so we are long overdue for some strides in this direction.  The most promising and inexpensive idea presented so far is the Orion Project.  This programs basic idea was to drop small fusion bombs behind the spacecraft, thus propelling it towards its destination at incredible speeds.  This concept is coined “Nuclear Pulse Propulsion”, and I expect we will hear more about it in the future.  The smallest proposed ship would require 300,000 of these small fusion bombs to throw itself to Alpha Centauri, our nearest star.  The ship would travel 3.3% the speed of light, and take up to 100 years!  Not exactly a practical idea, hence why it never left the drawing board.  Space craft utilizing fusion power can reach up to 10% the speed of light, which is incredibly fast considering our current capabilities.  A fusion rocket is 10 million times more powerful than most chemical rockets that are in use today!  In theory, our transit time using fusion could be reduced by up to 50%. 

            Nuclear fusion is an incredibly powerful force that holds unlimited potential.  So what is stopping man from researching this technology without restraints?  Alas, the issue that forces us to tarry is money.  Money and power is what makes the world go round as they say.  It requires immense amounts of money to research and develop such technology.  Some fusion reactors or space craft utilizing Fusion drives require 1 GDP (Gross Domestic Product) or more to build.  We will reach a point sometime in the future            I conject that you and I will be fortunate enough to see the successful fusion of hydrogen for the generation of electricity in our lifetime.  It will truly be a magnificent day when man can end his dependence on fossil fuels. I believe that fusion is the next step for man to wean itself off of fossil fuels, in order to propel our civilization into the future while becoming better stewards of the environment.